The
Darsanas
An article by
Sri Swami Sivananda, the founder of Divine Life Society
What is Darsana
The six scriptures of the Hindus are: (i)
Srutis, (ii) Smritis, (iii) Itihasas, (iv) Puranas, (v) Agamas, and (vi)
Darsanas. While the first four are intuitional, and the fifth inspirational and
emotional, the Darsanas are the intellectual section of the Hindu writings.
Darsanas are schools of philosophy based on the Vedas. The Agamas are
theological. The Darsana literature is philosophical. The Darsanas are meant for
the erudite scholars who are endowed with acute acumen, good understanding,
power of reasoning and subtle intellect. The Itihasas, Puranas and Agamas are
meant for the masses. The Darsanas appeal to the intellect, while the Itihasas,
Puranas, etc., appeal to the heart.
Philosophy has six divisions—Shad-Darsana—the
six Darsanas or ways of seeing things, usually called the six systems or six
different schools of thought. The six schools of philosophy are the six
instruments of true teaching or the six demonstrations of Truth. Each school has
developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Vedas in its own
way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e., the one great Rishi who
systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or
Sutras.
Sutras and
Commentaries
The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis
have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to
understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis.
Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras. There are glosses,
notes and, later, commentaries on the original commentaries. Each set of Sutras
has, therefore, got its Bhashya, Vritti, Varttika, Vyakhyana or Tika
and Tippani.
A Sutra or an aphorism is a short
formula with the least possible number of letters, without any ambiguity or
doubtful assertion, containing the very essence, embracing all meanings, without
any stop or obstruction and absolutely faultless in nature. A Bhashya is
an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with word by word meaning
of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation, together with the
individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara. A Vritti is a
short gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as
extensively as a Bhashya. A Varttika is a work where a critical study is
made of that which is said and left unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya, and
the ways of making it perfect by supplying the omissions therein, are given. A Vyakhyana
or Tika is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in
the original, with little elucidations here and there. Tippani is just
like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti. It is an explanation of
difficult words or phrases occurring in the original.
The Six Systems
of Philosophy
Gautama Rishi systematised the principles of Nyaya
or the Indian logical system. Kanada composed the Vaiseshika Sutras.
Kapila Muni founded the Sankhya system. Patanjali Maharshi is the first
systematiser of the Yoga school; he composed his Yoga Sutras. The Yoga-Darsana
of Patanjali is a celebrated text-book on Raja Yoga. Jaimini, a disciple of
Vyasa, composed the Sutras of the Mimamsa school which is based on the
ritual-sections of the Vedas. Badarayana composed his famous Vedanta-Sutras or
Brahma-Sutras which expound the teachings of the Upanishads. The
different schools of the Vedanta have built their philosophy on the foundation
of these Sutras.
Different Ways of
Approach to the Same Goal
The six schools of thought are like the six
different roads which lead to one city. You may go to Bombay by train or
aeroplane or car or bus or any other vehicle. Even so, you can reach the goal of
life through Yoga, or Vedanta, or any other path. The methods or ways of
approach to the Goal are different to suit people of different temperaments,
capacities and mental calibre. But they all have one aim, viz., removal of
ignorance and its effects of pain and sufferings, and the attainment of freedom,
perfection, immortality and eternal bliss by union of the individual soul
(Jivatman) with the Supreme Soul (Paramatman).
No student of Hinduism ought to be satisfied
without acquiring a clear and accurate knowledge of the principal distinguishing
characteristics of the six philosophical schools. The more advanced scholar
should study the original Sutras in which the doctrines of each school are
enunciated. Study of the six schools of philosophy will sharpen the intellect
and give you vast knowledge. You will have a clear and comprehensive
understanding of the Truth. Each system is a step or rung in the spiritual
ladder.
Interrelation
Between The Six Systems
The six schools are divided into three groups:
(i) the Nyaya and the Vaiseshika, (ii) the Sankhya and the Yoga, and (iii) the
Mimamsa and the Vedanta. The Vaiseshika is a supplement of the Nyaya. The Yoga
is a supplement of the Sankhya. The Vedanta is an amplification and fulfilment
of the Sankhya. Study of Vyakarana (grammar), Mimamsa, Nyaya and Sankhya
sharpens the intellect and enables the aspirants to grasp the Vedanta. The Nyaya
is considered as a prerequisite for all philosophical enquiry.
The Vaiseshika is not very much in honour now.
The Nyaya is popular. The Sankhya is not a living faith. The Yoga is practised
by a few in its practical form. The Vedanta is the most popular of all the
schools today.
The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika will give you an
analysis of the world of experience. They arrange all things of the world into
certain kinds or categories (Padarthas). They explain how God has made
all this material world out of atoms and molecules. They show the way to attain
knowledge of God. The Sankhya will provide you with deep knowledge on Hindu
psychology. Kapila Muni was the father of psychology. The Yoga deals with the
control of Vrittis, or thought-waves, and with meditation. The Yoga system shows
the ways to discipline the mind and the senses. The Yoga will help you to
cultivate concentration and one-pointedness of mind and enter into Nirvikalpa
Samadhi or the Superconscious State. The Purva-Mimamsa deals with the
Karma-Kanda of the Vedas, and the Uttara-Mimamsa with the Jnana-Kanda. The
Uttara-Mimamsa is also known as the Vedanta-Darsana. This is the corner-stone of
Hinduism. The Vedanta philosophy explains in detail the nature of Brahman or the
Eternal Being, and shows that the individual soul is, in essence, identical with
the Supreme Self. It gives methods to remove Avidya or the veil of
ignorance and to merge oneself in the ocean of bliss or Brahman.
The Nyaya calls ignorance Mithya Jnana,
false knowledge. The Sankhya styles it Aviveka, non-discrimination
between the real and the unreal. The Vedanta names it Avidya, nescience.
Each philosophy aims at its eradication by Knowledge or Jnana. Then one attains
eternal bliss or immortality.
By study of Nyaya and Vaiseshika, one learns to
utilise his intellect to find out fallacies and to know the material
constitution of the world. By study of Sankhya, one understands the course of
evolution. By study and practice of Yoga, one gains self-restraint and obtains
mastery over mind and senses. By practice of Vedanta, one reaches the highest
rung of the ladder of spirituality or the pinnacle of divine glory, oneness with
the Supreme Being, by the destruction of ignorance (Avidya).
Vedanta—The
Most Satisfactory System of Philosophy
Some of the doctrines of the Nyaya, the
Vaiseshika, the Sankhya and the Yoga are opposed to the teaching of the Vedas.
These systems are only superficially based on the Vedas. The Nyaya and the
Vaiseshika schools rely too much on human reason, though they accept the Vedas
as the supreme authority. Human intellect is frail and finite. It has got its
limitations. It functions within time, space and causation. Its findings cannot
be infallible. It cannot solve transcendental matters. Vedas only are infallible
and authoritative. They contain the revelations or direct intuitional
experiences of Seers and Rishis. These experiences will tally with the
experiences of those who have attained Knowledge of the Self (Brahma-Jnana).
The Vedanta is the most satisfactory system of
philosophy. It has been evolved out of the Upanishads. It has superseded all
other schools. The Mimamsa school has laid great stress on rituals, or Karma
Kanda. According to the Mimamsa school, Karma or ritual is all-in-all in the
Veda. Upasana (worship) and Jnana (knowledge) are only accessories
to Karma. This view is refuted by the Vedanta school. According to the Vedanta,
Self-realisation (Jnana) is the foremost thing, and ritual and worship
are accessories. Karma will take one to heaven which is only an impermanent
place of refined sensual enjoyment. Karma cannot destroy the cycle of births and
deaths, and cannot give eternal bliss and immortality.
During the time of Sankaracharya, all the six
schools of philosophy flourished. Therefore, he had to refute the other systems
in order to establish his absolute monism (Kevala Advaita). But, nowadays,
Sankhya, Vaiseshika, etc., are in name only. Even now, some Hindu preachers,
Sannyasins and Mandalesvars try to establish Advaita Vedanta by refuting these
old systems. This is a mistake. They will have to refute at the present moment
materialism, agnosticism, atheism and science, and then establish Advaita
Vedanta.
Other Scriptures
The Tevaram and the Tiruvachakam
are the hymns of the Saiva saints of South India; the Divya-Prabandham of
the Alvar or Vaishnava saints of South India; the songs of Kabir; the Abhangas
of Tukaram and the Ramayana of Tulasi Das—all of which are the outpourings
of great realised souls—are wonderful scriptures. They contain the essence of
the Vedas.
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